Bonapartism, Gaullism, and Populism. the Contradictions of Democratic Traditions in France and Europe

In this paper, the contradictory nature of democracy in Europe is analyzed by focusing on the Bonapartist roots of contemporary democracy. Different from the Anglo-Saxon tradition of democracy, based on representation and the separation of powers, French history reveals a model of democracy aimed at the direct expression of the popular will, but which is also more prone to authoritarian rule. Given the centrality of devices like elections, plebiscites and referendum, Bonapartist democracy is a  genuine part of the democratic tradition, revealing its contradictory nature. Yet as revealed by the career of the most prominent twentieth-century representative of this Bonapartist tradition, De Gaulle, the claim to represent the people without the interference of parties or parliaments, is the product of a real or imagined national crisis which calls for a providential leader to lead the nation. As a product of crisis, Bonapartist democracy is inherently unstable. But at the same time, its contemporary re-emergence in many European countries is a symptom of an actual crisis of democracy.