One of the foundations of modern nation-states is a sense of belonging, developed on the premise of citizens’ equal membership in society, and supported by their individual consent. However, changes have been taking place in this premise, and this has been especially so since the end of the Cold War. The debate on citizenship in ‘Western’ Europe has diversified, with concepts such as multi-tiered citizenship and ‘light citizenship’ emerging. They focus on the liberal character of the ideas involved, and the changing nature of the role of social integration.

On the other hand, citizenship in former socialist states of Eastern Europe, along with the countries of East Asia, displays different aspects. They include polarisations in social integration at home and the tightening of relationships with ‘compatriots’ abroad. In the background are presumably the relationship between social and cultural structures that have been historically constructed, and the politics that seek to utilize them.

We examine the relationship between history/memory and citizenship, taking examples from Eastern Europe and East Asia. Taking into consideration such factors as regime transition and re-demarcation of borders, we debate the impact of discrepancies in the sense of national belonging, fellow-feeling and identity on domestic/international politics. It would appear that such historical inquiries provide a perspective in gleaning insights on the acceleration of intolerance, exclusionist attitudes, and crises of democracy.

Experiences of Korea/Japan and Hungary/Romania are adopted for the aims. "Compatriot in neighbouring countries" and "citizenship policy" will be the adequate viewpoints for comparison between these cases.